Abstract:

This paper explores Nigerian society’s veneration of goddesses and women in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah. Various feminist theoretical models are applied to both texts to examine women’s expected and actual status in Nigerian culture. Although Achebe describes female deities in his works, the researcher also consults Patricia Ann Lynch’s African Mythology A to Z to gather additional information about Nigerian goddesses.

Women in Nigeria face severe marginalization and social inequality. They are denied basic rights and freedoms. The research identifies that while Anthills of the Savannah portrays some strong and independent female characters, there are still instances where gender stereotypes and patriarchal norms are evident. On the other hand, Things Fall Apart depicts a deep level of women’s marginalization in traditional Nigerian society.

Women perform many critical roles, such as educating children through folk stories, raising daughters, and serving as priestesses for gods (e.g., Chielo). Yet, men, cultural traditions, and even goddesses themselves sometimes contribute to women’s oppression and exploitation through fixed societal rules.

This paper investigates the social and mythological status of women in Nigerian society, examines male-dominated (chauvinistic) structures, and analyzes how powerful figures contribute to the exploitation of women in both Achebe’s novels and Nigerian mythology.

Keywords: Nigerian Mythology, Feminism, Goddesses, Gender Inequality, Marginalization, Achebe, Nigerian Society

Background of the study:

Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah focus on the roles of women and goddesses in Nigerian society. The researcher observes that on one hand, women are given such high reverence that they are worshipped and obeyed. Powerful male figures in the society bow before the commands of goddesses. On the other hand, ordinary women in society face discrimination. They are denied basic rights and are physically and emotionally abused. Women are beaten, scolded, raped, owned, humiliated, and treated like commodities rather than human beings.

This research seeks to analyze the reasons behind this dual treatment of women in Nigerian culture. It aims to compare and contrast the roles of women in Achebe’s novels with the mythical female figures from Nigerian mythology. Achebe’s works highlight the plight of African women, who are often deprived of their rights and made dependent on men for survival.

In Things Fall Apart, women are portrayed as submissive and voiceless, lacking authority, power, and rights. In contrast, Anthills of the Savannah presents a more authoritative image of women, although society continues to stereotype and restrict them. The Igbo women have struggled hard to earn their rights, undergoing long periods of oppression. Before colonialism, women were confined to domestic duties, including farming, child-rearing, and caring for livestock.

Africa, until the end of the 20th century, remained largely under Western colonial control, which worsened women’s marginalization. In pre-colonial times, women’s roles were limited to household and community-based tasks. Juliet Okonkwo, a Nigerian critic, remarks on Achebe’s works, stating that “women in Achebe are only seen but not heard.”

Dr. Rajesh M., in his article Multiple Gender Repression in the Dark Continent: A Study on the Women Protagonists of Chinua Achebe, emphasizes that women are treated as objects of sex, reproduction, and domestic labor. He notes that women are tasked with raising children, selling goods in local markets, earning a livelihood, fetching water, and meeting family needs, yet they are reduced to passive figures controlled by patriarchal society.

Most African societies were led by patriarchal heads, and women were portrayed as silent, obedient, and servile, performing domestic roles without voice or recognition. Their marginalization is evident in the limited roles assigned to them within the family and community.

From Africa’s historical origins, women have been treated as outsiders. They were excluded from political and governmental discussions. Important decisions were made without their input, as these were seen as men’s concerns. Women were not allowed to participate in ancestral meetings or leadership roles. Only men were seen as worthy of attending such ceremonies, leaving women excluded and marginalized. These discriminatory practices created a sense of inferiority and alienation among women, shaping a long history of gender inequality in African societies.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction:

Mythology is derived from the word “myth.” The term “myth” originates from the mid-19th century, from modern Latin mythus, through Late Latin and Greek muthos. According to the Oxford Dictionary, myth is defined as “a story from ancient times, especially one that was told to explain natural events or to describe the early history of people,” or “something that many people believe but that does not exist or is false.” Myths are often oral historical accounts passed down through generations (Alagoa 1978:9). Myths vary widely from culture to culture, community to community, and nation to nation. They often feature goddesses, gods, and heroic figures.

Myths originated as a way for humans to explain nature and mysterious events. As Jones M. Jaja writes in Myths in African Concept of Reality, quoting Anyanwu, “Man is a myth-making animal” who invents stories to answer questions that haunt his mind.

This research focuses on Nigerian mythological figures, particularly female deities. Female gods hold a highly respected position in Nigerian mythology. Africa, being a vast and culturally diverse continent with thousands of languages and traditions, has numerous myths. While there is no single mythology uniting all African cultures, shared themes and values appear across regions. Unlike in other parts of the world where myths are relics of the past, African myths remain a vital part of everyday life, shaping cultural beliefs and social practices.

Many African myths address universal themes such as creation, morality, life, and death, but they are also deeply rooted in Africa’s unique historical and geographical realities. Nigerians worship goddesses in the same way they worship male gods. People offer sacrifices and gifts to goddesses to seek blessings. For example, in Things Fall Apart, Ikemefuna is sacrificed on the command of the goddess Ani. People fear Ani’s wrath and obey her commands.

Prominent Nigerian goddesses are described in Patricia Ann Lynch’s African Mythology A to Z, revised by Jeremy Roberts. Some notable goddesses and their roles include:

These goddesses perform diverse functions and have rich mythological stories. This study will analyze the discrepancy between the status of goddesses and that of real women in Nigerian society. It will question whether women enjoy the same reverence as these deities or if they are deprived of basic rights and liberty. The research will also explore whether Nigerian men give equal respect to women as they do to their goddesses.

To address these questions, this research applies Feminist Theory. Feminist scholars argue that women’s oppression is rooted in gender subordination and cultural inequality, and they propose various models to address these injustices (Jones Katherine Castiello and Buding Michelle J. 2008). According to the Oxford Dictionary, feminism is “the advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes.” The word feminism originates from French féminisme, coined in the late 19th century. Movements like the French and American Revolutions, as well as waves of feminism in the 1960s, 1980s, and 1990s, helped establish feminism as a global call for gender equality.

This research adopts multiple feminist perspectives, including Liberal, Radical, Marxist, Socialist, Psychoanalytic, Postcolonial, and Postmodern feminism, to analyze Achebe’s novels:

• Liberal Feminism focuses on equal legal, political, and economic rights for women.
• Radical Feminism examines women’s sexual oppression and objectification.
• Marxist and Socialist Feminism discuss gender inequality within capitalist economies, including unpaid domestic labor and wage disparities.
• Psychoanalytic Feminism uses Freudian theories to analyze gender identity shaped from childhood, arguing that patriarchy defines male dominance through symbols like the phallus.
• Postcolonial Feminism addresses gender oppression linked to colonialism, focusing on intersectionality and exploitation.
• Postmodern Feminism challenges fixed gender roles and emphasizes diversity and inclusion.

In Things Fall Apart, Achebe portrays women as submissive, dependent, and oppressed. Women are shown as child-bearers and wives without rights or power. As Strong-Leek (2001) notes, “Women are viewed mainly as child bearers and helpmates of their husbands.” Due to a male-centered culture, women are expected to produce male heirs, and women like Ekwefi are seen as cursed when they fail to do so.

Women are excluded from social, political, and economic power, and treated as inferior. They are often physically punished and culturally marginalized. Critics argue, “Women are treated as mere subjects who are meant to ‘add value’ to a man’s worth. Gender segregation is so strong that women cannot even plant or harvest certain crops.” Ouarodima (2018) calls Achebe’s depiction of Igbo women “degrading and sexist.”

Characters such as Ekwefi, Ezinma, Nwoye’s mother, Ojiugo, Ozoemena, Akueke, and Obiageli suffer under male dominance. They are beaten, silenced, treated as commodities, and denied authority. Dathorne (1975: p.69) observes that Things Fall Apart is “infused by the dominant presence of a man.”

However, some women in the text hold religious authority, such as Ani (Earth goddess), Chielo (priestess of Agbala), and Chika (priestess in Unoka’s time), showing that while social women are oppressed, mythical women hold power.

In Anthills of the Savannah, Achebe presents a new image of women through Beatrice Okoh, an educated and independent woman. She holds a degree from London University and a civil position. Beatrice is given the power to write and speak by Achebe, symbolizing women’s growing empowerment. Despite this, she faces sexual harassment and societal constraints. Male characters attempt to use their power over her, but Beatrice’s resistance symbolizes female strength and agency.

Like Achebe’s other novels, Anthills of the Savannah also shows rape and violence against women. Women lack basic rights, including the right to name their own children.

Beatrice is portrayed as an exceptional woman and a symbol of emancipation for Nigerian women. Mindhu calls Anthills of the Savannah an important work for women’s liberation, presenting Beatrice as an intelligent and independent woman, far removed from domestic roles. Yet, Achebe’s earlier works still reflect distorted and oppressed images of women.

This study will explore whether social and mythological women share the same respect, or if reverence is reserved only for goddesses. Akintude (1999:74) argues that African culture reveals social injustice and gender discrimination in the distribution of power, dignity, and opportunities between men and women.

1.1 Research Objectives

❖ To compare Nigerians’ reverence for female deities and the women of their society.
❖ To explore the male-dominated (chauvinistic) nature of African society.
❖ To analyze the exploitation and marginalization of women by powerful figures in Nigerian society.

1.2 Research Questions

➢ Do Nigerians revere their goddesses and women equally in society and culture?
➢ Is Nigerian society controlled by male dominance and patriarchy?
➢ How do powerful figures in Nigerian society exploit and suppress women?

Chapter 2

Literature Reviews:

A literature review provides the essential background and relevant scholarly discussions on the research topic. Chinua Achebe, a renowned African writer, has contributed significantly to African literature. His works address numerous themes, motifs, and symbols, making his narratives widely studied and globally recognized. Achebe’s major novels, such as Things Fall Apart, Anthills of the Savannah, and Arrow of God, are frequently analyzed in the contexts of Feminism, Colonialism, Postcolonialism, Imperialism, Religion, and Culture. Numerous articles, journals, research papers, and theses have been published internationally, focusing especially on the image and status of women in Achebe’s works.

Most studies highlight the changing portrayal of women in Achebe’s narratives, reflecting a shift from distorted, marginalized images to more empowered, educated, and independent female characters. Achebe’s skillful blending of culture, religion, tradition, colonialism, and politics enhances the depth of his female characters. The academic sources in this literature review underscore the relevance and importance of Achebe’s contribution to gender discourse.

Key Scholarly Works on Achebe and Feminism

1. Purwarno’s article, “The Role of Women in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart” (Julisa, 2009):
Purwarno explores the duality of women’s roles, noting that while women appear marginalized—portrayed as weak, sad, and oppressed—they also hold symbolic power as goddesses, priestesses, and moral guides. Nigerian women, despite social inequalities, maintain spiritual authority in their roles as caretakers of traditions and religion.

2. Uzoechi Nwagbara’s “Changing the Canon: Chinua Achebe’s Women, the Public Sphere and the Politics of Inclusion” (Journal of International Women’s Studies, 2009):
Nwagbara highlights women’s political marginalization due to patriarchy. However, Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah is seen as a political novel that introduces Beatrice as a “New Woman” challenging gender roles and fighting for women’s inclusion in political and social discourse.

3. Patience A. K. Awua-Boateng’s “The Presentation of the African Woman” (2010):
This article discusses women’s historical subjugation and confinement to domestic roles. Awua-Boateng asserts that women have been seen as second-class citizens, marginalized both as women and as black individuals. The article emphasizes that women’s empowerment is essential for Africa’s progress. By questioning patriarchal stereotypes, African women’s literary image is evolving toward empowerment and recognition.

4. R. Geetha and Dr. Pauline Das’s “Myth and History in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God” (2013):
This article examines Achebe’s use of myth and history to depict African traditions, rituals, and culture. It underscores how myths reflect African beliefs, while also highlighting how colonialism and Western influences disrupted traditional gender roles. Achebe uses myths to present a historically authentic African society struggling under colonial pressures.

5. Gillian Renee Singler’s “Goddess of the Savannah: Beatrice as Achebe’s Sensible Solution” (2015):
Singler analyzes Beatrice as a metaphorical goddess in Anthills of the Savannah, symbolizing women’s potential to lead and govern society. Her character challenges patriarchal limitations and opens space for women’s voices in leadership and social reform.

6. Abdalatif Mamoun Hassan’s “The Image of Women in Chinua Achebe’s Novels” (2016):
Hassan argues that Achebe portrays Nigerian women as marginalized and oppressed, confined to roles like folk storytellers and priestesses, but without social power. His analysis shows a gradual improvement in women’s image in Achebe’s later works.

7. Maina Ouarodima’s “Shifting the Canon: An Analysis of Achebe’s Women” (2018):
Ouarodima traces the evolution of women’s representation, from the submissive women in Things Fall Apart to the empowered Beatrice in Anthills of the Savannah. Postcolonial feminist criticism is applied to challenge gender inequality and advocate for women’s rights in African societies.

8. Annan G.’s “Tracing the Evolution of the Roles of Female Characters in Achebe’s Works” (2018):
Annan examines Achebe’s changing portrayal of women across Things Fall Apart, No Longer at Ease, and Anthills of the Savannah. Through Postcolonial Feminism, Annan analyzes how colonial and patriarchal influences shaped women’s roles, evolving from oppressed to empowered figures.

9. Clifford Odimegwu and Christian N. Okemgbo’s “Men’s Perceptions of Masculinities and Sexual Health Risks in Igboland” (2018):
This article examines male-dominated structures in Igbo society, showing how men define women’s roles as subordinate. Although Nigeria’s constitution grants equal rights, cultural practices favor male children and enforce patriarchal control over women’s bodies and actions.

10. Mexan Serge Epounda’s “Gendered Space in Chinua Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah” (2019):
Epounda analyzes patriarchal barriers in politics and public life, even in Anthills of the Savannah. While Beatrice represents a breakthrough, women still face systemic oppression. The article emphasizes education and unity among women as key to overcoming patriarchy.

11. Reece Hill’s “Chinua Achebe’s Depiction of Women in His Books” (2019):
Hill highlights Achebe’s realistic portrayal of women, reflecting Nigerian society’s treatment of women during colonial and postcolonial times. By comparing Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah, Hill examines the shift from marginalized to respected women characters.

12. Additional Research and Syntheses:
Maina Ouarodima’s Shifting the Canon (2018) and Amechi Akwanya’s Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah and Postcolonial Authenticity (2019) further explore gender, cultural, and mythological concerns, underscoring how Achebe’s novels reflect shifting societal dynamics.

The existing scholarly works offer valuable insights into the transformation of women’s images in Achebe’s works. However, there remains a gap in comparing mythological goddesses with social women, which this research aims to fill. By applying feminist theoretical models, this study will analyze whether real Nigerian women enjoy the same respect as female deities or remain marginalized under patriarchal norms.

Chapter 3

Research methodology:

3.1 Research Design

A qualitative research method has been used in this study, as it is an exploratory research approach. This method is subjective, purposive, and narrative in nature. It helps in collecting and analyzing data to reach meaningful conclusions. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah serve as primary sources for this research to explore and analyze the status of women in Nigerian society and mythology.

3.2 Data Collection Tool

The main data collection tools for this study are Chinua Achebe’s novels, Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah. These texts are used as the foundation for comparing the social and mythological status of women in Nigeria. The researcher will draw references and examples from these novels to analyze gender discrimination and mythological reverence for women, thereby connecting literary content with cultural realities.

3.3 Sample

The sample includes the texts of Achebe’s two novels, Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah, which will be examined through the lens of feminist theory. This analysis aims to compare the representation of Nigerian women with their mythological counterparts. The researcher will also refer to related published articles and journals for broader academic insight. In addition, Nigerian mythological data will be gathered from various scholarly articles, with a special focus on Patricia Ann Lynch’s African Mythology A to Z, second edition, revised by Jeremy Roberts. This mythological reference will help link the literary and cultural portrayal of women in Nigerian context.

3.4 Limitations of the Study

This research has some inherent limitations. The researcher has analyzed Achebe’s works using available scholarly resources. However, being located in a small city posed challenges in accessing major academic libraries. The availability of relevant and up-to-date data was limited. Finding authentic sources on Nigerian mythology was a major concern. Additionally, choosing an appropriate sample that could both represent the topic and help in drawing generalized conclusions was challenging. Selecting relevant feminist models for the theoretical framework also required careful consideration and posed difficulty due to the diverse range of feminist perspectives available.

Framework:

Feminism aims to provide equity to both men and women in gaining equal social, political, and economic status. Feminism initially rose in America and later spread widely across the world. It emerged during the second half of the twentieth century. Alexander Dumas, a French dramatist, first used the term ‘Feminism’ in 1872 in his pamphlet L’Homme-femme.

“Feminism is a belief that women should have economic, political, and social equality with men” (World Book).
“Feminism is a political movement that works to gain such equality — economic, political, and social. This movement is sometimes called the Women’s Movement or Women’s Rights Movement” (World Book).

The feminist movement has been divided into three main phases:

1) First Wave (1860–1930: Suffrage Movement)

The first wave of feminism focused on women’s suffrage and legal rights. Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women and the writings of the Grimké sisters in the United States started this wave. This movement brought a remarkable change, uniting women from different backgrounds to rise for equal rights. Ben and Mary Stell advocated for women’s rights in the early 18th and late 19th centuries.

In the 19th century, Elizabeth Cady Stanton argued that the nation needed women’s contributions and opportunities. Margaret Fuller and Lucretia Mott were feminists who fought to preserve women’s rights in marriage, education, and employment.

2) Second Wave (1970–1980)

The second wave of feminism, also known as the Women’s Liberation Movement, spread widely in the 1960s and 1970s, driven by women, students, laborers, and Black activists in France and the USA. Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique (1963) played a pivotal role in reviving feminist thought.

This movement challenged traditional gender roles, emphasizing that class and race should not divide women and promoting sisterhood as a collective force. Prominent figures include:

• Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex, 1949)
• Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique, 1963)
• Kate Millett (Sexual Politics, 1969)
• Germaine Greer (The Female Eunuch, 1970)

During the 1970s–1980s, the movement resurfaced with a focus on third-world women, working-class women, and Black women, challenging the universalist claims of early feminism.

3) Third Wave (1980 Onwards)

From 1980 onward, many political and critical changes occurred in feminism, and the term ‘Feminism’ evolved into ‘Feminisms’, reflecting diverse perspectives. This phase focused on sexism, sexual oppression, and intersectionality.

“Radical feminism ranged from cultural feminism to more syncretic politics that placed issues of class, economics, etc., on a par with patriarchy as sources of oppression.”

Types and Models of Feminism:

Cultural Feminism

Cultural feminism, known as a branch of Radical Feminism, revolves around the belief in biological differences between men and women, e.g., “women are kinder and gentler than men.” This theory focuses on biology, personality, and behavior, aiming to counter sexism by valuing women’s unique experiences, expressions, and wisdom. Cultural feminists argue that women can handle matters more gently and effectively than men.

Equality Feminism

Equality feminism demands equal legal and social rights for men and women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft asserts that women deserve the same legal rights as men. John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women (1869) advocates that society should be based on individual ability, not birth, and though men and women are biologically different, they deserve equal treatment and rights.

Eco-Feminism

Eco-feminists argue that patriarchal laws are harmful and oppressive. They draw parallels between society’s treatment of animals, commodities, and women, highlighting that resisting patriarchy also means resisting the destruction of Earth. Eco-feminists believe patriarchy has shaped society for over 5,000 years.

Individualist or Libertarian Feminism

This model focuses on individual autonomy, liberty, and diversity. It addresses barriers that both men and women face due to gender roles, promoting the concept of independent women who are not dependent on others.

Material Feminism

Emerging in the 19th century, Material Feminism focuses on economic improvement and women’s liberation, emphasizing the need to remove domestic burdens and ensure economic independence for women.

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism challenges patriarchy, arguing that society systematically oppresses women. It seeks to identify and dismantle the root causes of women’s subordination.

“The cause of all inequalities in society is based on gender identity, class, perceived attractiveness, sexual orientation, and ability.”

Radical feminists believe that eliminating patriarchal laws and breaking domination structures will bring true freedom and equality.

Amazon Feminism

Amazon feminists argue for female strength and independence, inspired by Greek mythology’s warrior women (Amazons). Modern icons like Wonder Woman symbolize this movement, celebrating heroic female figures and advocating for gender equality through empowerment.

Liberal Feminism

Liberal feminism emphasizes legal rights, education, voting, work opportunities, and equal pay. Prominent liberal feminists include Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, and Simone de Beauvoir. They highlight the importance of communication between men and women to reduce gender gaps and fight sexual and domestic abuse.

Socialist Feminism

Socialist feminism, influenced by Marxism, identifies social and psychological roots of women’s oppression, beyond mere economic factors. It argues that women cannot achieve full emancipation without ending both cultural and economic oppression. Socialist feminism also intersects with radical feminist thought.

Application of Feminism to Achebe’s Novels

The researcher will apply these feminist models to Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah. Through this application, the study will analyze how Nigerian women are treated in both society and mythology, using feminist frameworks to identify women’s ideal status and societal roles.

Significance of the study:

hings Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah are Chinua Achebe’s well-known novels, published successfully in 1958 and 1987, respectively. The former is a novel that addresses the poor condition of women in Igbo society, focusing on their marginalization and the empowerment of female goddesses. Things Fall Apart portrays themes of male domination, women’s submissiveness, marginalization, humiliation, and dependence. Along with this, Anthills of the Savannah serves as another sample text, in which the position of female characters in Nigerian society will be examined through this research.

Things Fall Apart represents the colonial image of women, whereas Anthills of the Savannah presents the postcolonial image of women. This thesis portrays the contrast between the dependent and independent images of women. Anthills of the Savannah depicts women with power, authority, and independence, exercising their willpower, though they confront numerous challenges along their journey.

In this research, a comparison will be drawn between the status of Nigerian goddesses and the women in both novels. All these issues will be highlighted by the researcher, with comparative references to Nigerian goddesses. The objective of this research is to analyze how women are bent under male dominance and how patriarchal society confines women within the shackles of helplessness. It also questions whether real-life women in Nigeria hold the same respect and rights as mythological women.

Different feminist models will be applied by the researcher to explore the place of women in both literature and society. This study will examine how male members of society suppress women to take away their freedom. Many research papers have been published to investigate women’s positions in Nigerian society, and previous works focus either on the condition of women or mythology. However, this study will re-explore women’s status through various feminist lenses and seek to define whether Nigerian women are still suffering or have gained some rights.

Furthermore, this research aims to open new dimensions for future researchers to understand Nigerian mythology and the role of women in comparison. The purpose of selecting this topic is to analyze the status of women in Nigeria in relation to mythology. The goal is to allow readers to understand Nigeria’s social psyche, to question whether Nigerians respect women in real life as much as they honor female figures in their mythology.

Chapter 4

   Data Analysis:

Patricia Ann Lynch’s book, African Mythology A to Z, addresses Nigerian gods and goddesses. It provides an account of the powers and myths of goddesses from various regions of Africa. Shellon asserts that “the most powerful and well-known deities in Igboland are female” (1971, p. 126). These goddesses are eagerly obeyed and honored with offerings and sacrifices by the people. Thus, Nigerians revere both male and female gods to fulfill their wishes and prayers.

Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah depict the passive and marginalized status of women directly and indirectly. The treatment of women in these novels ranges from severe oppression to occasional leniency. Women in Nigeria were expected to satisfy men’s sexual desires, give birth to children, raise them, and assist in agricultural work with their husbands. This highlights a stark contrast between goddesses’ revered status and real women’s treatment in society.

Ahia Njoku (Aha Njoku / Ahiajoku): Goddess of Yams

Ahia Njoku is the goddess of yam crops, a staple and highly respected food in Igbo society. Although yams are considered a man’s crop, they are protected and blessed by a female deity. Ahia Njoku oversees yam growth, harvesting, and farmers’ prosperity (godchecker). As the Igbo people’s mother, she is essential for their survival. Ironically, while Nigerians bow to her for a good harvest, women are not allowed to grow yam crops, restricted instead to “womanly” crops like maize, beans, vegetables, cassava, cocoyam, and corn (Achebe, 1959, pp. 22–23).

In Anthills of the Savannah, Beatrice is also referred to as the “goddess of the savannah” (Gillian Renee Singler, 2015), embodying care and leadership. Singler writes:

“Beatrice’s character plays many roles, providing her with agency rather than simply labels. She is a metaphorical grit, goddess, prophetess, and priestess, parts that all work together to shape her political philosophy, which reshapes tradition.” (Singler, 2015).

Motherhood as the Only Respected Role

In Igbo society, motherhood is the only socially honored role for women. Uchendu, Okonkwo’s uncle, emphasizes this:

“Mother is supreme.”

When fathers punish their children, they seek refuge in their mother’s obi (hut). Uchendu’s speech in Chapter 14 of Things Fall Apart reflects this belief:

“It’s true that a child belongs to its father. But when a father beats his child, he looks for sympathy in its mother’s hut. A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sadness and anger, he finds safety in his motherland. Your mother is there to protect you. She is buried there.”

Osun (Oshun): Goddess of Love and Purity

Osun (Oshun) is the deity of beauty, love, fertility, water, sensuality, purity, and river divinity (Britannica). She is depicted as the nurturer and protector of humanity. Nigerians seek her blessings for purity and protection of women’s chastity. Yet, Anthills of the Savannah portrays women whose purity is attacked by men.

• Beatrice, the protagonist, faces an attempted rape by Sam, a state official, but resists due to her strong moral character and independence.
• Adamma faces sexual violence by a police officer, and Chris sacrifices his life while saving her.

Ala: Earth Goddess of Fertility and Morality

Ala (also Anne, Ale) is the goddess of fertility, morality, creativity, and death. She governs the earth and the underworld, overseeing ancestral spirits and human fertility. Despite revering Ala, Nigerians commit injustices against women on her sacred earth.

In Things Fall Apart, women suffer physical abuse even from the respected protagonist, Okonkwo:

• Ojiugo, Okonkwo’s youngest wife, is beaten for negligence:

“And when she returned he beat her heavily. In his anger, he had forgotten that it was the week of peace.” (Achebe, 2000, p. 21)

• Ekwefi, his second wife, is beaten for plucking banana leaves:

“He beat her heavily.” (Achebe, 1965, p. 27)

Other wives dared not interfere beyond a weak plea:

“Neither of the other wives dared to interfere beyond an occasional and tentative, ‘It is enough, Okonkwo,’ pleaded from a reasonable distance.” (Achebe, 1965, p. 27)

As Keith remarks:

“Okonkwo’s domination of his household becomes a microcosm of the domination of society by patriarchal figures.” (p. 73)

Additionally, Mgbafo, a neighbor, is abused by her husband Uzowulu even while pregnant, leading to miscarriage:

“My sister lived with him for nine years. During these years, no single day passed without his beating her… when she was pregnant, he beat her until she miscarried.” (Achebe, 1965, p. 65)

Woyengi: Creator Goddess of Life and Choice

Woyengi, the creator goddess, gives life to humans and allows them to choose their gender, destiny, and way of death. Despite being created by a female deity, women in Igbo society are devalued and referred to as Agbala, meaning “woman” or “weakness”:

“Agbala was not only another name for a woman; it could also mean a man who had taken no title.” (Achebe, p. 9)

Okonkwo dreads being called Agbala and fears being seen as weak. He even participates in Ikemefuna’s murder to avoid this label:

“When did you become a shivering old woman?”

Thus, being called a woman is an insult in Igbo society, yet goddesses are revered — a contradiction that highlights gender inequality.

Idemili: Protector of Mothers and Infants

Idemili is the goddess of pregnant women, mothers, and infants, protecting them from harm. Yet, in Things Fall Apart, pregnant women are beaten, causing miscarriages, which directly opposes the respect given to goddesses like Idemili.

It is strange that a goddess is beseeched to protect pregnancies, yet women’s pregnancies are lost due to violence and torture. In Nigerian society, neither pregnant women nor infants were secure. An illustration of this harsh reality appears in Things Fall Apart, where Uzowulu beats his wife, Mgbafo, daily—even while she is pregnant.

“My sister lived with him [Uzowulu] for nine years. During these years, no single day passed in the sky without his beating the woman… when she was pregnant, he beat her until she miscarried” (Achebe, 1965, p. 65).

Infants were also under the protection of Idemili, yet when a woman gave birth to twins, they were thrown into the forest as bad omens. Nigerians did not understand that twins share a zygote and naturally form two embryos. Nwoye knew that twins were thrown alive into the “Evil Forest”, following divine command.

“Nwoye had heard that twins were put in earthenware pots and thrown away in the forest, but he had never yet come across them. A vague chill had descended on him and his head had seemed to swell, like a solitary walker at night that passes an evil spirit on the way. Then something had given way inside him. It descended on him again, this feeling, when his father walked in that night after killing Ikemefuna” (Achebe, 1958).

Another instance describes the throwing away of twins to prevent the Earth goddess’s wrath:

“He [Obierika] remembered his wife’s twin children, whom he had thrown away. What crime had they committed? The Earth had decreed that they were an offense on the land and must be destroyed. And if the clan did not exact punishment for an offense against the great goddess, her wrath was loosed on all the land and not just on the offender” (13.16).

Although Obierika feels remorse, he understands that disobedience to the goddess Ani could bring destruction upon the entire clan.

Ogboinba: The First Female Creation of Woyengi

Ogboinba, created by Woyengi, is the first female human creation. Like others, she was allowed to choose her destiny, gender, and death. She chose to be a woman, with a good husband and magical powers, though she forgot to ask for children:

“She could cure the sick, read people’s thoughts, predict future events, perform magic, and understand the languages of birds and animals” (African Mythology A to Z).

Nigerians prayed to Ogboinba for healing and prophecy.

Oba: Goddess of Marriage and Domesticity

Oba is the goddess of marriage and domestic harmony. People seek her blessings for stable and prosperous marriages. The Isa-Ifi ceremony, described in Things Fall Apart, tests a woman’s chastity and fidelity before marriage:

“This ceremony determines a woman’s faithfulness to her fiancé after a long separation” (Achebe, Things Fall Apart).

During Isa-Ifi, Njide, Uchendu’s eldest daughter, interrogates the bride about her purity:

“The daughters of the family were all there. Some of them had come a long way from distant villages. Uchendu’s eldest daughter had come from Obodo, nearly half a day’s journey away. The daughters of Uchendu’s brothers were also there. It was a full gathering of Umuada, as they would meet if a death occurred in the family. There were twenty-two of them. They sat in a big circle on the ground, and the bride sat in the center with a hen in her right hand… Uchendu’s eldest daughter, Njide, asked the questions” (Achebe, 1959, p. 132).

However, men were permitted polygamous marriages, while women were expected to marry once and remain faithful for life. The number of wives reflected men’s social status:

“A wealthy man in Okonkwo’s village who [has] three huge barns, nine wives, and thirty children” (Achebe, 1965, p. 13).
“Okonkwo was clearly cut out for great things. He was still young but had won fame as the greatest wrestler in the nine villages. He was a wealthy farmer with two barns full of yams and had just married his third wife” (Achebe, 1965, p. 6).

As highlighted in cultural texts:

“A man can have six wives — it is not bad. But to one man only, God appointed a woman to marry” (Dopamu and Alana, 2004:160–162; Olademo, 2009:104).

Edewor (2006:375-376) supports this by stating:

“Nigerian culture, like many African cultures, allows or encourages men to engage in polygamous marriage. A man engaging in extramarital affairs is often praised, while women are condemned and harshly punished for similar behavior.”

Thus, goddesses receive reverence, but women are marginalized.

Respect for Goddesses vs. Oppression of Women

Although Nigerians worship supreme and lesser deities, goddesses receive obedience and sacrifice. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart demonstrates this through Ikemefuna’s sacrifice to Ani, the Earth goddess, and Okonkwo’s punishment for violating peace:

“Although a male and powerful figure, Okonkwo obeys Ani’s command without question.”

Despite such reverence for female deities, women in society are passive and oppressed. The novel focuses on male dominance:

“Things Fall Apart is essentially infused by the dominant presence of a man.” (Dathorne, 1975, p. 69).

Women are treated as commodities, bound to household chores, and denied rights. Okonkwo prefers male offspring, saying to Ezinma:

“I wish she were a boy.”

Women in Anthills of the Savannah: A Shift but Not a Resolution

Anthills of the Savannah portrays independent women like Beatrice, yet patriarchal mindsets persist. Beatrice, though educated, faces Sam’s lust and male oppression. Women like Adamma face similar threats.

Furthermore, naming a child remains a male privilege:

“In our traditional society…the father named the child. But the man who should have done it today is absent… What does a man know about a child anyway that he should presume to give it a name?” (AOS).

Beatrice challenges this by naming Elewa’s child Amaechina, meaning “May the path never close.”

Feminist Models Applied

• Equality Feminism: Things Fall Apart denies women equality, but Beatrice in Anthills of the Savannah challenges this.
• Radical Feminism: Beatrice and Ekwifi challenge patriarchal norms.
• Amazon Feminism: Beatrice and Ekwifi symbolize strength — Ekwifi, as the first rebellious woman, leaves her first husband; Beatrice stands up to political oppression.
• Socialist Feminism: Both women fight for public and private rights.
• Liberal Feminism: Beatrice embodies education, political engagement, and self-reliance, though traces of patriarchy linger.

As Margaret Fafa Nutsukpo states:
“Achebe has created a radical feminist… Beatrice is portrayed as an intellectual who is incredibly intelligent… Her feminist perception of independence and selfhood embodies her lifestyle as an individual and a single woman.” (2011, pp. 160-161).

Anthills of the Savannah represents women who are independent and powerful in appearance. Beatrice demonstrates dominance in political, social, and educational fields. She is given authority to manage various responsibilities because, as Cultural Feminists believe, women can handle matters better than men. Beatrice addresses problems transparently and effectively, showing that although women are different from men in sex and behavior, they are equally capable.

According to Amazon Feminists, biological differences do not prevent women from standing equal to men. Contrary to patriarchal beliefs, Cultural Feminists affirm that women can perform tasks traditionally assigned to men. Beatrice and Elewa handle political duties efficiently, demonstrating leadership.

Eco Feminists argue that patriarchy has only brought ruin to the earth, creating gender distinctions that limit women’s roles. For instance, in Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo denies Ezinma’s help by saying:

“And after a pause she said: ‘Can I bring your chair for you?’
‘No, that is a boy’s job.’ Okonkwo was especially fond of Ezinma.” (Achebe, pp. 59-60)

Similarly, Anthills of the Savannah illustrates gender discrimination through Beatrice’s childhood memory of how her father taught her to sit properly:

“My father was so insistent on it. ‘Sit like a female!’ or ‘Female soldier,’ which he called me as he lifted me off the ground with his left hand and gave me three stinging smacks on the bottom with his right.” (p. 80)

From crop selection to storytelling, gender-biased traditions reinforce inequality. Individualist or Libertarian Feminists reject this stereotyping and argue for women’s independence and equality. As a result, characters like Beatrice emerge as independent and authoritative figures.

Beatrice achieves her status by controlling chaotic circumstances and rejecting domestic burdens, aligning with Material Feminists, who advocate economic and social independence for women. Anthills of the Savannah grants material liberty and leadership to its female characters.

As Helene Cixous observes:

“It is time to liberate the New Woman from the Old by coming to know her – by loving her for getting by, for getting beyond the Old without delay, by going out ahead of what the New Woman will be, as an arrow quits the bow with a movement that gathers and separates the vibrations musically, in order to be more than herself.” (Online)

Exploitation of Women by Goddesses, Culture, and Men

Goddesses, cultural traditions, and men are powerful figures in society, often used to exploit women. The word “exploit” means:

“To take advantage of (a person, situation, etc.), especially unethically or unjustly for one’s own ends.” (Dictionary.com)

Exploitation by Goddesses

Women, who painfully bear children, are deprived of them if they give birth to twins, as commanded by goddesses. Twin babies are thrown into the forest, regardless of the mother’s suffering. The dark forest “devoured” the babies because twins were seen as evil. If disobeyed, the goddess could destroy the clan.

Obierika reflects on this tragedy:

“He [Obierika] remembered his wife’s twin children, whom he had thrown away. What crime had they committed? The Earth had decreed that they were an offense on the land and must be destroyed. And if the clan did not exact punishment for an offense against the great goddess, her wrath was loosed on all the land and not just on the offender.” (13.16)

Exploitation through Cultural Traditions and Patriarchy

Culture, including patriarchy, defines women’s roles as household caretakers and sexual objects. This mentality reduces women to mere tools for men’s satisfaction.

Anthills of the Savannah reveals two incidents of attempted sexual violence against women, illustrating men’s lust fueled by patriarchy. Cultural norms prevent women from engaging in politics and social decision-making.

In Things Fall Apart, women’s chastity is questioned in public, while men face no such scrutiny. The Isa-Ifi ceremony tests a bride’s virginity before marriage:

“Amikwu, Uchendu’s son, is marrying a new wife, but before marriage, a ceremony ensures the bride’s fidelity after her time away from her fiancé. The bride must swear before the Umuada, a gathering of Uchendu’s daughters, that she has not been with any other man. Uchendu sacrifices a hen to complete the marriage.” (Study.com)

Exploitation by Men

Men humiliate and degrade women, treating them as commodities and sex objects, with no love or respect.

In Things Fall Apart, women are used for:

• Childbearing
• Household labor
• Sexual satisfaction

Men, like Okonkwo, view women as property, and polygamous marriages show their social standing.

Similarly, in Anthills of the Savannah, men attempt to exert power over Beatrice and Adamma for their pleasure. Women are denied the right to name their own children — only men hold that authority.

Yet Beatrice challenges this when naming Elewa’s baby:

“In our traditional society…the father named the child. But the man who should have done it today is absent…What does a man know about a child anyway that he should presume to give it a name?” (AOS)

She names the baby “Amaechina”, meaning “May the path never close”, symbolizing hope and empowerment.

Feminist Perspectives and Models Applied

• Equality Feminists argue women should have equal rights. Things Fall Apart denies this equality.
• Radical Feminists challenge gender oppression. Beatrice, in Anthills of the Savannah, confronts patriarchy.
• Amazon Feminists highlight women’s strength. Both Beatrice and Ekwifi symbolize this power:
  • Ekwifi defies patriarchy by leaving her first husband and choosing Okonkwo.
  • Beatrice resists male authority and asserts leadership.
• Socialist Feminists fight for public and private rights — a struggle shown through both Beatrice and Ekwifi.
• Liberal Feminists emphasize education and politics. Beatrice embodies these ideals but still faces patriarchal remnants.

As Margaret Fafa Nutsukpo notes in her essay “Feminist Stance and Language: A Focus on Beatrice in Chinua Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah”:

“Achebe has created a radical feminist… Beatrice is portrayed as an intellectual who is incredibly intelligent… Beatrice’s feminist perception of independence and selfhood embodies her lifestyle as an individual and a single woman.” (2011, pp. 160-161).

Findings of the research:

This study was intended to inquire about the reverence of Nigerians toward their goddesses and women. Based on all the analyzed evidence, the researcher concludes that women in Nigerian society are marginalized and deprived of their basic rights. Although there are instances that show women have some freedom, such as the concept that “Mother is supreme” and the characters of Beatrice and Elewa, most female characters are portrayed as oppressed and with limited rights. Women are beaten for minor mistakes whenever men feel like punishing them, and they are sexually violated when male lust becomes uncontrollable.

        On the contrary, female deities are highly respected. Men never dare to disobey them and are always ready to fulfill the commands of female goddesses. In summary, while Nigerians                  revere their goddesses, they simultaneously humiliate and oppress their women in almost every field of life. Men hold dominant power in Nigerian society. Women are not allowed to            act on their own will or make independent decisions, while men are free to exercise their authority. Okonkwo, from Things Fall Apart, is an example of a man who exerts power over women,          treating them like property. He is the sole decision-maker in the household and gives orders as he wishes.

       For instance, when Ikemefuna is brought to Okonkwo’s home, he commands his wife to take care of him. When she questions Ikemefuna’s stay, Okonkwo reacts harshly, making it clear that             women are not allowed to question men’s decisions. This incident shows how male members in Nigerian society suppress women, denying them basic rights like freedom of speech and           choice.

       Moreover, powerful figures—including cultural traditions, men, and even goddesses—exploit women through predefined stereotypes. These stereotypical nets trap women and hinder           their liberation, leaving them unable to free themselves from these constraints. Culture itself becomes a source of trouble for women, dictating oppressive roles. Additionally, the demands of         goddesses sometimes lead to women’s destruction, yet men remain the primary force behind women’s exploitation, as they hold the ultimate power to enforce these cultural and divine         mandates.

Conclusion:

      Things Fall Apart and Anthills of the Savannah are Chinua Achebe’s most famous novels. After thoroughly studying and analyzing both texts, it can be concluded that Achebe’s portrayal of                  women is flawed and incomplete. Even when he assigns dominant positions to his female characters, stereotypical gender roles and biases still emerge subtly. Though women may                    appear  powerful on the surface, beneath this façade, they remain subordinated members of society in various ways.

     Moreover, when a woman attempts to break free from the chains of patriarchy, she is often labeled a rebel or suppressed through societal means. This injustice is reinforced by various             social factors, religious deities, and male figures within Nigerian culture. The researcher expresses gratitude to Patricia Ann Lynch, whose book African Mythology A to Z provided essential                 information about Nigerian goddesses. From this resource, it was evident that Nigerians worship their goddesses with deep reverence, believing that disobedience to these deities could               bring  severe punishment or destruction.

     This study primarily focuses on examining the reverence of Nigerian men toward women and goddesses. The core objective was to assess how much respect and concern Nigeria shows         toward goddesses compared to real women in society. The findings of this study reveal that only in a few instances are social women given a respected position. Undoubtedly, goddesses           hold a significant and powerful place in Nigerian mythology, but women in society are deprived of their fundamental rights in Things Fall Apart and denied true freedom in Anthills of         the Savannah. To conclude, while Nigerians are devoted followers of their goddesses—willing to make great sacrifices to honor them—they fail to grant real-life women their rightful             respect and basic human rights.

References:

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